Regional and Social Variation
In this model of language change and dialect differentiation, it should always be possibleto relate any variation found within a language to the two factors of time and distance alone; e.g.,the British and American varieties, or dialects, of English are separated by over two centuries of political independence and by the Atlantic Ocean; Northumbrian and Cockney English are nearly300 miles and many centuries apart.Dialect geographers have traditionally attempted to
reproduce their findings on maps in what they call dialect atlases. They try to show the geographical boundaries of the distribution ofa particular linguistic feature by drawing a line on a map. Such a line is called an isogloss.Alternatively, a particular area, a relic area, may show characteristics of being unaffected by changes spreading out from one or more neighboring areas. Very often the isoglosses forindividual phonological features do not coincide with one another to give us clearly demarcateddialect areas. Because dialect studies grew out of historical studies of languages, it should alsocome as no surprise that they have focused almost exclusively on rural areas.
1.
The linguistic variable
The investigation of social dialects has required the development of an array oftechniques quite different from those used in dialect geography. Many of these derive from the pioneering work of Labov, who, along with other sociolinguists, has attempted to describe howlanguage varies in any community and to draw conclusions from that variation not only forlinguistic theory but also sometimes for the conduct of everyday life, e.g., suggestions as to howeducators should view linguistic variation (see chapter 14). As we will see, investigators now payserious attention to such matters as stating hypotheses, sampling, the statistical treatment of data,drawing conclusions, and relating these conclusions to such matters as the inherent nature oflanguage, the processes of language acquisition and language change, and the social functions ofvariation. Possibly the greatest contribution has been in the development of the use of the
‘linguistic variable,’ the basic conceptual tool necessary to do this kind of work (see Wolfram,1991). As I have just indicated, variation has long been of interest to linguists, but the use of thelinguistic variable has added a new dimension to linguistic investigations.
2.
Linguistic and Social Variation
Once we have identified the linguistic variable as our basic working tool, the next task becomes one of employing that tool in an effort to see how linguistic variation relates to social
variation. An early study of linguistic variation by Gumperz (1958), but one cast in a ‘modern’mold, shows some of the intricacies involved in trying to relate linguistic variation to social
variation. Because the society he was studying is rigidly stratified on the basis of caste membership, the problems are considerably fewer than those encountered in such cities as NewYork, Detroit, or even Norwich, but they are still present. As we will see, there are numerous difficulties in attempting this task, but considerable progress has been made in overcoming them,
particularly as studies have built on those that have gone before in such a way as to strengthenthe quality of the work done in this area of sociolinguistics.
3.
Data Collection and Analysis
Once an investigator has made some decision concerning which social variablesmust betaken into account and has formed a hypothesis about a possible relationship between social and
linguistic variation, the next task becomes one of collecting data that will either confirm or refute that hypothesis. In sociolinguistics, this task has two basic dimensions: devising some kind of plan for collecting relevant data, and then collecting such data from a representative sample ofspeakers. As we will see, neither task is an easy one. An immediate problem is one that I have previously referred to (p. 19) as the ‘observer’s paradox.’ How can you obtain objective data
from the real world without injecting your own self into the data and thereby confounding theresults before you even begin? How can you be sure that the data you have collected are
uncontaminated by the process of investigation itself? This is a basic scientific quandar
y, particularly observable in the social sciences where, in almost every possible situation, there isone variable that cannot be controlled in every possible way, namely, the
observer/recorder/analyst/investigator/theorist himself or herself. If language varies as much as itdoes, the presence of an observer will have some effect on that variation.How can we minimize this effect? Even data recorded by remote means, e.g., by hidden cameras and sound recorders, may not be entirely ‘clean’ and will require us to addressadditional ethical issues. We know, too, that observations vary from observer to observer andthat we must confront the issue of the reliability of any observations that we make. Sociolinguistsare aware that there are several serious issues here, and, as we will see, they have attempted todeal with them. The usual kind of data collection device is a questionnaire designed to elicit dataillustrative of the use of the variable or variables that are being investigated. Since experiencehas shown that the different variants of a variable occur in different circumstances, thequestionnaire must be designed to elicit data in a variety of circumstances. Many studies havemade a four-fold distinction in categorizing those circumstances: (1) a casual situation, with sub-categories such as speech outside the formal interview, or conversation with a third party (i.e.,not the person doing the interviewing), or responses to general questions, or recall of childhoodrhymes, or the narration of a story about feeling one’s life to be in peril; (2) an interview
situation; (3) the reading aloud of a story; and (4) the reading aloud of lists of words and of pairsof words like den and then. A questionnaire which elicits these various kinds of linguistic behaviors will cover very casual speech (the casual situation), more formal speech (the interviewsituation), and the most formal speech of all (the different reading tasks). A person who says shootin’ when explaining how he at some time felt himself to be in mort
al danger may well readthe same word presented on a list as shooting, and someone who pronounces caught and court ashomophones during an interview may well distinguish them in some way when the words appearin contrast with each other on a list of pairs of words.
4.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Variation is an inherent characteristic of all languages at all times and the patterns exhibited in this variation carry social meanings (An Introduction to Sociolinguistics,2015). The term linguistic variation (or simply variation) refers to regional, social, or contextualdifferences in the ways that a particular languageis used. Variation between languages, dialects, and speakersis known as interspeaker variation. Variation within the language of a singlespeaker is called intraspeaker variation. Since the rise of sociolinguisticsin the 1960s, interest inlinguistic variation (also called linguistic variability) has developed rapidly. All aspects oflanguage, (including phonemes, morphemes, syntactic structures, and meanings) are subject tovariation.